CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language

Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Fortalecimiento del léxico en el aprendizaje del inglés: un

enfoque en la competencia escrita

Melhorando a competência lexical no aprendizado do idioma

inglês: uma ênfase na habilidade de escrever

AUTORES:

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

Postgrado, Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi. Ecuador.

Jonathan.quetama@upec.edu.ec

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7012-8965

Fecha de recepción: 2025-05-15

Fecha de aceptación: 2025-07-09

Fecha de publicación: 2026-01-05

DOI https://doi.org/10.33936/cognosis.v11i1.7579

ABSTRACT

Academic performance in acquiring English vocabulary is closely tied to the quality of

teaching within educational institutions. Therefore, the objective was to identify the lexical

skills of ninth-grade basic education students through a linguistic corpus to strengthen

vocabulary acquisition, as well as collect information from English teachers regarding the

methodology and practices used in class related to vocabulary development. In the creation

of the textual linguistic corpus, lexical variety, semantic context, and formal and informal

vocabulary were analysed to identify student errors in writing. For the formulation of the

corpus question, the ninth-grade English textbook was considered, specifically Unit 1’s

theme, with the purpose of analysing knowledge levels relative to the students' academic

grade. In this sense, the question was: “Write about individual characteristics, daily

routines, and activities you do in your free time.” Precise results were obtained in their

writing, later revealing the most common shortcomings. The methodological data gathered

through interviews focused on analysing how English teachers structure their classroom

instruction, including their use of gamification tools to enhance engagement, strategies for

evaluating vocabulary, the incorporation of metacognition to foster students' self-

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

awareness in learning, and methods for assessing acquired knowledge to measure

academic progress.

KEYWORDS: Vocabulary; difficulty in learning; writing; teaching method.

RESUMEN

El rendimiento académico en la adquisición de vocabulario del idioma inglés es sinónimo

de calidad de enseñanza dentro de las instituciones educativas. Por lo que se planteó como

objetivo Identificar las habilidades léxicas de los estudiantes de noveno de educación

general básica mediante un corpus lingüístico para fortalecer la adquisición de

vocabulario. Así también recopilar información de los docentes de inglés con respecto a la

metodología y practicas utilizadas en clase relacionas al desarrollo del vocabulario. En la

realización del corpus lingüístico textual se analizaron la variedad léxica, el contexto

semántico y vocabulario formal e informal para identificar los errores de los estudiantes

en la escritura. Para la formulación de la pregunta a realizar en el corpus lingüístico se

tomó en cuenta el libro de inglés de noveno con la temática de la unidad uno, donde la

finalidad es analizar el nivel de conocimiento en relación con su nivel de grado académico,

en este sentido la pregunta fue; escriba características individuales, rutina diaria y lo que

realizan en su tiempo libre. Se pudo obtener resultados precisos en la redacción de este,

para posteriormente evidenciar las falencias más comunes. Por otra parte, en la

recopilación de información de la metodología empleando la entrevista se analizó como

llevan a cabo el desarrollo de la clase los docentes de inglés, la utilización de herramientas

de gamificación, la evaluación de vocabulario, la aplicación de la metacognición, y como

evalúan el conocimiento adquirido los estudiantes.

PALABRAS CLAVE Vocabulario; dificultad en el aprendizaje; escritura; método de

enseñanza.

RESUMO

Desempenho acadêmico na aquisição de vocabulário de inglês é sinônimo de qualidade de

ensino nas instituições educacionais. Para tanto, estabeleceu-se como objetivo identificar

as habilidades lexicais de estudantes do 9º ano do Ensino Fundamental por meio de um

corpus linguístico, visando fortalecer a aquisição de vocabulário. Realizou-se também um

levantamento junto aos professores de inglês sobre as metodologias e práticas utilizadas

em sala de aula relacionadas ao desenvolvimento do vocabulário. Na construção do corpus

linguístico textual, analisaram-se: a variedade lexical, o contexto semântico e o uso de

vocabulário formal e informal, buscando identificar os erros mais comuns na produção

escrita dos alunos. A formulação da pergunta para o corpus teve como base o livro didático

de inglês do 9º ano (Tema: Unidade 1), visando analisar o nível de conhecimento em relação

à série. A pergunta foi: "Escreva sobre características individuais, rotina diária e atividades

no tempo livre". Com isso, foi possível obter resultados precisos na análise das redações e

evidenciar as deficiências mais recorrentes. Por outro lado, na coleta de dados sobre a

metodologia (via entrevistas), analisou-se: como os professores conduzem as aulas, se

utilizam ferramentas de gamificação, como avaliam o vocabulário, se aplicam estratégias

de metacognição e como verificam o conhecimento adquirido pelos alunos.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Vocabulário; dificuldade em aprender; escrita; Método de ensino.

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

1. INTRODUCTION

Teaching methodologies have evolved progressively alongside the integration of new

technological trends to support cognitive development in learning. Current

demands necessitate educational adaptability to these technologies. Today,

numerous virtual tools facilitate English language acquisition, making learning

more accessible for students. In this sense, learning a second language is relatively

easy nowadays. It offers significant advantages, including professional

opportunities, academic growth, and the opportunity to travel around the world as

a tourist or for work. However, achieving mastery requires developing linguistic

skills, particularly vocabulary acquisition and writing competence. It is essential to

know how Ecuadorian teachers develop the foregoing.

“Education in Ecuador faces challenges like high illiteracy, low school attendance,

frequent grade repetition, high dropout rates, poor-quality teaching, and

inadequate infrastructure and learning materials” (La EPJA En Ecuador: El Último

Eslabón de la Educación, 2023, parag. 2). Many schools still rely on outdated

teaching methods for languages like English, resulting in dull classes, slow

progress and student disengagement. Additionally, students rarely interact in real-

life settings to practice communication skills or expand their vocabulary. Often,

they learn limited words without enough practice or motivation to grasp their

practical uses. As Gutiérrez note that “Motivation and enjoyment are key factors

that tend to improve after implementing new strategies” (Gutiérrez et al., 2023,

p.14).

De la Maya Retamar, y López-Pérez (2020) state that:

The increase in lexicon is strongly related to success in both oral and written

comprehension, and, although to a lesser extent, to oral comprehension. It

is precisely on the oral side of the language that the work by Hilton is centred,

which highlights the relationship between lexical knowledge and fluency in

a language, so that the more words one knows, the more fluency one has in

speech. (p. 3)

The capacity to understand a second language and engage in suitable

communication is based on the lexicon and the four competences, including

reading, writing, speaking, and listening. However, it is closely related to reading

and writing. To assess the vocabulary levels of ninth-grade students, we utilised a

linguistic corpus.

Sierra (2021) claims:

Several educational studies have examined the relationship between

structural linguistic complexity and reading comprehension. To do this, they

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

either use computer systems with built-in complexity measures (such as

Korpus or Lexile) or establish their criteria; based on these, they determine

a text’s complexity level and analyse how this variable affects the processes

of reading comprehension. (p.3)

This investigation aims to determine the students' lexicon level and identify any

potential areas of struggle.

DEVELOPMENT

WRITING SKILL

English has four fundamental skills that can be classified as productive and

receptive. Reading and listening are considered receptive skills because, when

practising them, the student receives and understands ideas, thoughts, and

opinions. Whereas writing and speaking are productive skills, meaning the student

creates and expresses ideas and concepts.

Writing is difficult for most students because they must focus on several important

points such as punctuation, vocabulary, grammar and the order of words. It is

essential to connect ideas logically to write an excellent paragraph; this process is

called coherence. It helps to express yourself clearly and understandably.

Coherence and cohesion are essential elements that enable students to write

effectively. Whether a student dominates these elements, they can communicate

their message and express themselves adequately. Cohesion helps the reader

understand the relationship between what has already been written, what is being

written now, and what will be written next. It is an essential feature of a coherent

text because cohesion creates coherence, which in turn provides semantic unity

across sentences and paragraphs. Chicho (2022) points out “the cohesion and

coherence devices can be used for collecting related words, phrases, clauses,

sentences, and paragraphs” (p.30).

COHERENCE

ANALYSE LITERARY CONTEXTS

It is a factor that allows second language students to enhance their writing skills.

As Abdalrahman (2021) emphasises:

When reading a literary text, learners will acquire the grammatical

structures, constructions, unity, and coherence unconsciously. Sometimes,

learners will imitate the writing style of a writer as a model for their writing.

Leal explained that learners could use a literary text as a model for

understanding the grammar, structure, and vocabulary. (p. 5)

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

It is widely considered that literature and writing are closely related to learning a

second language, making it essential to incorporate them into a learning

environment.

USING LEXICAL CHAIN

These are features related to the poor use of language, which are everyday struggles

that some students face. As Abdalrahman (2021) explains:

Interpreted lexical chains as a chain of semantically related ideas, and that

chain does not depend on the grammatical structure of a text. The chain

captures lexical cohesion, highlighting repeated relative ideas in a text. There

are more different ways of categorising semantically related lexical items.

This study focuses on three of them: exact, synonyms, and semantic. The

writers repeat the nouns exactly, use synonyms, and employ nouns that

belong to the same semantic tree and are related to each other. (p.4)

To delve into the use of lexical chains, it is essential to grasp the language, as well

as the grammatical structures and vocabulary.

To develop a cohesive text, the following factors should be considered: reference,

substitution, ellipsis and conjunction.

According to Chicho (2022), “Reference means referring to an element that cannot

be interpreted if you do not refer to it with another word semantically. There are

referring devices such as comparatives, demonstratives, articles and pronouns. (p.

5) In this way, there are two references: one prompts the reader to look beyond the

text Infer, and the second allows the reader to see everything in the text, making

inference or interpretation unnecessary.

The substitution involves replacing a word with another word in the text to provide

grammatical cohesion. Students use this method to avoid repetition of words.

Chicho (2022) claims that “substitution means the connection between words, but

reference connects the meanings not words. There are three types: clausal: replaces

clauses with “so” or “not”; verbal: replacing a verb with another verb; and nominal:

replacing a noun with another noun.” (p.6) Writers use substitutions to avoid

repetition.

The third factor is ellipses, which make the writing process understandable, as

Chicho (2022) states:

Ellipses indicate that words are omitted, as they are not necessary to be

repeated in the text. Ellipses help the writer avoid repeating words that were

written earlier in the text. By omitting these words, the sentences will be

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

more concise. Scholars have considered them as anaphoric substitutions

because the omitted words are within the text. Ellipses do not damage the

passage because the deleted word from the text can still deliver the meaning.

(p.7)

Conjunctions connect logically related sentences or clauses in a logical order,

making it easier for the reader to understand the text.

The last factor is conjunctions, according to Chicho (2022):

Conjunctions can be categorised into four types: temporal, adversative,

causal, and additive. Temporal conjunctions provide the time order of actions

and events in a text or paragraph, for example, first, second, finally, at the

same time, etc. Adversative conjunctions in a text contrast results or

opinions. This type of conjunction occurs by words, for example, “but, in

contrast, whereas”, etc. Causal conjunctions are used to illustrate results,

reasons, or purposes. They usually use the words: as, so, thus, therefore,

because, etc. Finally, additive conjunctions link units or statements that

share similarities. For instance, are, and, likewise, furthermore, in addition,

etc. (p.7)

WRITING ANXIETY

Aloairdhi (2019, as cited in Chicho, 2022) noted that writing anxiety (WA) originates

from foreign language anxiety (FLA), and that the fear of making mistakes increases

students’ anxiety levels. Blasco (2016, as cited in Chicho, 2022) stated that there

is a strong relationship between WA and metacognitive skills; therefore, for a

productive writing task, students need to learn to cope with this anxiety. Barzani

and Meena (2022, as cited in Chicho, 2022) suggest the use of authentic materials

in the classroom, and Meena (2020, as cited in Chicho, 2022) recommends

cooperative learning to overcome these anxieties. (Chicho, 2022, p.8)

ABUSES OF TRANSITION WORDS

Siddiqui (2020, as cited in Chicho, 2022) found that the overuse of transition words

is one factor that negatively affects paragraph clarity and organisation. He claimed

that if learners do not have a clear opening, they cannot provide focused supporting

details—instead, they keep writing long sentences overloaded with “and,” “also,”

“so,” and “then.” Moreover, a lack of transitions or the use of very few transition

words reflects students’ difficulty in constructing a unified and well-organised

paragraph. (Chicho, 2022, p.8)

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

TEACHING AND LEARNING WRITING SKILLS THROUGH LITERATURE

Literature encourages students to grasp the four abilities of language. There is a

wealth of literature, including poems, novels, dramatic works, and more. These

works require the reader’s attention and participation, as well as their thoughts

and emotions, to enhance their lexicon. Abdalrahman (2021) points out, “As

language instructors, literature should be integrated in the activities inside and

outside the classroom to engage the learners effectively. When learners learn the

taste of literary masterpieces, they will seek more and become independent

learners” (p.4). Based on the foregoing literature, authentic works are essential

materials that enhance student learning, making them the best choice for

implementation in writing classes.

LITERATURE IN VOCABULARY

Instructors can use literature to teach and learn new words. Ismail Y Sharan (2020)

claimed that “learners read literature; they fling into it. They delve deeper to

understand the meaning of the lexical items in the text. This can lead to beneficial

effects in learning. As such, literature becomes a source of grammar and linguistic

rules” (p. 274). It is essential to incorporate literary texts into the learning process

to develop productive language skills in a second language and refine vocabulary.

Abdalrahman (2021) claims:

Language instructors should explain the concepts of denotation and

connotation to learners. On the one hand, denotation refers to the literal or

dictionary meaning of words. On the other hand, connotation refers to the

emotive meaning that includes implications, associations, and suggestions

that words convey when they are taken out of the text and placed in their

historical, socio-cultural, and political contexts. (p.4)

Instructors must teach vocabulary as an essential part of second-language learning

for two key reasons: it boosts reading comprehension by exposing learners to new

words, and it enables smoother, more fluent writing. Having a wide-ranging

vocabulary is essential for crafting coherent sentences, paragraphs, and texts,

since learners must understand both the meanings and proper usages of words.

Without this foundation, reading becomes challenging and directly undermines the

quality of their writing.

CORPUS AND LEXICON LEARNING

In the process of Learning and teaching a second language, a corpus has played a

fundamental role in two critical ways. Firstly, as a research tool, they have

facilitated the elaboration of dictionaries and grammar that reflect the natural

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

evolution of the language. Secondly, in the design of teaching materials, a corpus

provides real data that reflects the actual use of language. Thus, they act like a

database that allows us to get representative and realistic language samples.

Recent studies on corpus-based error analysis show interesting results that

intertwine diverse error types. For instance, Divsar and Heydari (2017)

categorize several error types in essays written by Iranian English as a

foreign language student, identifying word choice as the most common error.

Students selected words without considering contextual appropriateness

and spelling errors. Alike, Botley et al. (2007) focused on spelling errors using

the CALES corpus, which contains English essays from students at two

Malaysian universities. They classified errors into predefined categories but

also created new ones based on their findings. The authors discuss potential

reasons for these errors and suggest preventive strategies. (Alcaraz, 2023,

p.136)

VOCABULARY-BASED LEARNING

Vocabulary-based learning is a fundamental part of acquiring a new language.

Developing a plentiful and varied vocabulary enables students to communicate

more effectively, both in writing and speaking, and helps them understand texts

and speeches in a second language. To learn new vocabulary effectively, it is

essential to study words in their context, whether in complete sentences or stories.

Alcaraz (2023) states:

Learning vocabulary is not an “all-or-nothing” phenomenon. In fact, it is a

gradual, complex, and dynamic process. In which the nature of the word

and the human condition are determinants. Everything here is essential from

a didactic perspective. It is proposed to adopt the word as a functional unit

when teaching vocabulary. Nevertheless, the word, understood as a

functional unit, involves the concept of a motto, namely taking account of

derived and reflexive forms (for instance, run, running, ran) that help us to

arrange the curriculum content. (p.54)

This approach fosters a deeper and more adaptable understanding of vocabulary

among students.

GAME-BASED LEARNING

Cornella et al. (2020) state that Game-Based Learning (GBL) aims to “use games to

learn through them. The game becomes a vehicle for learning. During the game,

the teacher can reflect on what is happening and the content being addressed” (p.

5). Indeed, GBL motivates students to understand any topic, and with the

participation of teachers, learning becomes more effective.

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

Ripoll y Pujolá (2024) suggest:

Game-based learning incorporates games in educational contexts to enhance

the achievement of the learning goals. These games can be board games,

outdoor games, escape rooms or video games. According to their purpose,

they can be adapted for the educational field to improve students'

competencies or designed explicitly for a pedagogical purpose from the

outset. In GBL, teachers must carry out an informed selection of games,

ensuring that they are coherent with the students` learning goals. This is a

pedagogical approach that integrates games into the didactic process. (p.19)

To grasp how game-based learning works and determine in which circumstances

to apply it. It is essential to have a structured narrative for both digital and physical

games. From start to finish, the primary purpose must be learning specific content,

such as a topic, grammar, or vocabulary. In general terms, GBL represents learning

through play.

GAMIFICATION

Gamification involves designing learning experiences to be experienced as a

game. Suppose the goal of gamification is to influence someone’s motivation

to encourage specific behaviour. In that case, the user should be at the core

of the definition and mindset of those designing a gamified action. To gamify

is to create game-like experiences in non-playful environments. The player’s

enjoyment measures the effectiveness of gamification during the process

(Cornella et al., 2020, p. 12).

Behind these words lies a powerful idea: the primary goal of applying gamification

is to make the end user feel as though they are participating in an experience akin

to a game.

According to Jara and Montoya (2022, as cited in Valencia, 2023), gamification, a

methodological approach in the educational system, involves applying game

elements to enhance learners' motivation, promote meaningful learning, and foster

engagement. It has been demonstrated to be an effective tool for improving the

learning process by incorporating game elements, such as points, achievements,

and challenges, thereby enabling a more active and innovative approach to

learning. Additionally, using educational games, such as platforms, applications,

and video games, can significantly increase comprehension and retention of

information (p. 33).

Gamification is not defined as a pedagogical approach, but rather as an

instructional strategy that can be precisely tailored to any framework we

establish for our teaching. Thus, we can gamify a flipped classroom

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

approach, a more traditional lecture-based model, problem-based learning,

or a task-based approach. In all these frameworks, gamified proposals can

be designed by incorporating the necessary game elements in each case

(Ripoll & Pujola, 2024, p. 19).

2. STUDY SETTING AND PARTICIPANT GROUP

The Bolívar Educational Unit operates in Tulcán, Carchi Province, as a

fiscomisional institution serving approximately 1,500 students across two

modalities: daytime secondary education and night-time higher education. Core

academic disciplines include mathematics, English, literature, and related fields.

POPULATION

This study focuses on ninth-grade Basic General Education students (N = 100).

Regarding faculty, the institution employs 105 teachers, with four English-

specialised educators participating in structured interviews.

SAMPLING APPROACH

A non-probabilistic cluster sampling method was employed for student selection,

while intentional sampling guided teacher participation. Ninth-year students were

selected based on their A1 English proficiency level, as defined by Ecuador's

National English Curriculum (Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador, 2019) and the

Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). This linguistic competence

alignment ensures that participants are suitable for the research objectives.

Studying employs a descriptive, qualitative approach. Data collection techniques

included interviews with teachers, a structured questionnaire, and a writing test

designed to create a linguistic corpus for analysing students' most common errors

in English vocabulary use.

PROCEDURES

The data gathered through various collection instruments will be processed using

coding techniques based on the guidelines established by Strauss and Corbin

(1995). The process will begin with data coding, followed by the classification of

interrelated codes grouped into categories. Subsequently, discussion themes will

be developed to characterise the research problem. The study phases are described

below.

Phase 1 focused on collecting information about vocabulary teaching

methodologies used by English teachers at the Bolívar Educational Unit, aiming to

identify effective strategies to enhance vocabulary acquisition among ninth-year

Basic General Education students. This phase examined current knowledge and

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

teaching practices for English lexical development in ninth-year students at the

Bolívar Educational Unit in Tulcán, Carchi. Semi-structured interviews were

conducted with five English teachers to gain an understanding of their

instructional methodologies, strategies, and implementation approaches. Data

processing involved systematic transcription and coding of interviews to analyse

responses and identify recurring patterns in participants’ discourse.

Phase 2 employed a linguistic corpus to compile data from a representative sample

of ninth-year students at the Bolívar Educational Unit. This textual corpus, derived

from written prompts and student responses, underwent qualitative analysis to

identify lexical challenges. The corpus analysis evaluated lexical diversity, semantic

contextualization, and formal/informal vocabulary usage to pinpoint writing

errors. The prompt design drew from Unit 1 themes in the ninth-year English

textbook (personal characteristics, daily routines, leisure activities), aiming to

assess vocabulary alignment with academic grade-level expectations. This

approach yielded precise results highlighting the most common lexical deficiencies

in student writing.

3.OUTCOMES

The following is the analysis derived from the interview. The following categories

and subcategories were determined.

Table 1: Dependent Variable and the categories

Dependent

variable

Meaning

Categories

Subcategories

Lexical

skills

It involves the accurate use

of semantic structures and

relations, as well as an

understanding of their

communicative contexts

and meanings.

Lexical variety

Words application

Redundancy

Semantic context

Punctuation errors

Formal and

informal

vocabulary

Writing errors

The analysis of the 100 student texts revealed systematic lexical difficulties. First,

students demonstrated a minimal lexical range, repeatedly using basic words that

often obscured the clarity of their message. Many writings featured unnecessary

redundancy, with learners repeating the same adjectives or phrases (e.g. “very very

good”) instead of employing synonyms or varied constructions. Frequent semantic

errors were observed: words used out of context or with incorrect meanings (for

instance, confusing “happy” with “fun” or misapplying prepositions). In addition,

punctuation mistakes, such as omitted commas and failure to capitalise sentence

beginnings, were common and likely influenced by Spanish orthographic

conventions. Students also exhibited confusion between formal and informal

registers, using colloquial expressions (“okay,” “yeah,” “dad”) in contexts that

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

required more formal language. Finally, general writing errors (spelling, subject-

verb agreement, verb tense) further undermined paragraph coherence.

Figure 1: The corpus highlights errors

LEXICON VARIETY

According to the data, 32.1% of students demonstrated excellent use of vocabulary

in writing contexts. In this case, during the writing test, they followed instructions

and showcased diverse vocabulary aligned with their educational level. Maya et al.

(2020) emphasizes the importance of vocabulary acquisition as a means to write

clearly and coherently.

Beyond the central role vocabulary acquisition plays in language learning

(Bogaards, 1994; Laufer, 1986; Wilkins, 1974), numerous studies support the

significance of vocabulary in language use (Schmitt, 2010). Vocabulary size is also

considered an indicator of overall language proficiency: the larger the vocabulary,

the higher the competence (Maya et al., 2020).

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

According to the information displayed in the graphic, punctuation errors occur at

a rate of 28,6% which represents that student still overlook the final points and

commas—important details in lexical competition.

SEMANTIC CONTEXT

Regarding the graphic, in relation to the semantic context dimension, it can be

noted that 39.3% of the students exhibit transfer errors, explicitly using the

structure, words, and vocabulary of their mother tongue when learning English.

Similarly, according to the graph, 21.4% of the results demonstrate incorrect use

of verbs, particularly in the use of the verb "to be" and the use of pronouns.

The study also reveals that 57.1% of students have spelling errors, including

misspelt words. This highlights the need to implement teaching strategies that

reinforce vocabulary acquisition and correct spelling.

INFORMAL VOCABULARY

This dimension includes errors in articles (e.g., "a," "an," "the"), auxiliary verbs,

redundancy, and pronouns. These errors are the least common among students,

accounting for only 3.6% of total results. It can be said that ninth-grade students

possess basic knowledge of grammatical structures that can be adapted to formal

or informal contexts with additional practice.

4. DISCUSSION

The limited lexical variety observed in the writing samples aligns with the

instructional strategies employed. Despite teachers' use of playful activities to

expand vocabulary, their observations confirm that students tend to reuse a limited

set of words. This pattern aligns with previous studies. For instance, Cordero and

Martín (2020) found that semantic errors predominate in the written work of EFL

learners.

THE FALACY OF CONTEXTUALIZATION

Although 100% of teachers mentioned using contexts (sentences/role-plays),

39.3% of transfer errors reveal that Contexts are artificial or impractical. For

example, sentences such as "The firemen in my house" do not reflect honest

communication or student interest. Additionally, there is a lack of focus on

collocations. Students do not learn "make a mistake" (they say "do a mistake"). This

explains the low lexical variety (32.1%).

On the other hand, teachers mentioned using gamification as a strategy to motivate

students to practice vocabulary. These approaches align with the pedagogical

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

literature, which is the body of knowledge on teaching and learning. Zhang and

Hasim (2022) report that gamification improves English skills and student

motivation. However, they also note technical limitations and short-lived positive

effects. In this case, the teachers agreed that the lack of technological resources,

such as internet access and projectors, restricts the implementation of advanced

digital tools. Additionally, some teachers mentioned using cell phones, the English

lab, and apps such as Duolingo and Kahoot. However, these applications do not

correct L1 transfer errors, as observed in some cases, such as writing "I have 15

years." Nevertheless, cell phones could be used to record pronunciation and

combat the 57.1% spelling error rate.

The impact of innovative methodologies may be limited. Nevertheless, the repetition

of oral (role-play) and written exercises (underlining text, writing sentences) in

classes reflects an attempt to compensate for technological shortcomings. One

teacher mentioned a technique of drawing on the blackboard to make vocabulary

explicit. This technique promotes comprehension without relying on devices. These

teaching resources are pedagogically justified. The use of images and concrete

communicative contexts helps to fix lexical meaning.

Finally, 57.1% of spelling errors among ninth-grade students can be attributed to

teachers. Only one teacher uses authentic audio recordings, while the others either

ignore or fail to practice English-Spanish phonetic instruction, resulting in errors

in writing and pronunciation.

En caso de utilizar tablas y figuras, debe tener en cuenta las siguientes

indicaciones:

5. CONCLUSIONS

This study focused on analyzing the lexical skills of ninth-grade students using a

linguistic corpus, which enabled the identification of the most frequent errors,

particularly spelling and transfer errors. Because of this, it is essential to

implement classroom activities that support vocabulary learning not in isolation or

through technical drills, but through context, using real-life examples that help

students connect new words to their own experiences. The use of technological

tools is also encouraged to support this learning process.

Moreover, teaching English within a semantic context is crucial for avoiding literal

translations between languages, another issue identified in the results. On a

positive note, some students demonstrated a broader vocabulary than expected for

their level of study. Overall, the lexical skills of ninth-grade students still

demonstrate a basic level of English proficiency.

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

According to the interviews, most teachers reported using gamification as a key

strategy to boost student engagement in learning. Although the school has an

English or audiovisual lab, many teachers mentioned that it does not meet their

pedagogical needs; therefore, they often utilise their technological resources to

deliver lessons, demonstrating a strong personal commitment to the teaching

process.

For vocabulary practice, teachers noted that they use role-playing, as it encourages

constant interaction in English and introduces new words. This method has proven

effective, as students tend to feel more comfortable and enjoy interacting with their

classmates. Teachers also reported using word cards, where either the teacher or

a student draws a term on the board, creating an active learning environment

where students participate in discovering meanings, which has led to positive

results in vocabulary acquisition.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In this study, interviews were conducted to gather direct information about the

pedagogical practices implemented with ninth-grade students and to identify areas

for improvement in teaching and learning. These interviews also offered qualitative

insights that enabled a deeper analysis of instructional strategies, the resources

employed, and the challenges faced by educators at the Bolívar Educational Unit.

This approach provides a detailed understanding of specific problem areas,

including spelling and punctuation errors, misuse of vocabulary, and grammatical

issues. By analyzing these errors, recurring patterns and common difficulties that

students encounter when writing in English can be identified. The resulting

linguistic corpus provided valuable data that can be used to design more targeted

and effective teaching strategies aimed at improving students’ writing and

vocabulary skills. Moreover, the continued use of this tool will help monitor

students’ progress over time and allow instruction to be adjusted to meet their

specific needs.

Future research should be conducted. This research should be related to speaking

skills. The goal is to strengthen productive skills.

6. DECLARATION OF CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this article. They have

not received funding or support from any organization or entity that could

influence the content of the work.

7. AUTHORS' CONTRIBUTION

Enhancing lexical competence in English Language Learning: An Emphasis on writing skill

Jonathan Stalin Quetama Guamialama

CoGnosis

Revista de Educación

e-ISNN 2588 – 0578 Vol. XI, Núm. 1: enero-marzo, año 2026

Author 1

Conceptualization, Data Curation, Research, Methodology,

Visualization, Writing – original draft –, Writing – revision and

editing –

8. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

Asim Ismail, I., & Sharan, V. (2020). Teaching writing skills through English literature: Palestine

as an example. International journal of science and research (Raipur, India), 9(9), 274–278.

https://doi.org/10.21275/sr20828165839

Chicho, K. Z. H. (2022). An Analysis of Factors Influencing EFL Learners’ Writing Skills. Canadian

Journal Of Language And Literature Studies, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.53103/cjlls.v2i2.38

Cornellà, P., et al. (2020). Gamificación y aprendizaje basado en juegos: Consideraciones

generales y algunos ejemplos para la enseñanza de la geología. Enseñanza de las Ciencias

de la Tierra, 28(1), 5–19. https://raco.cat/index.php/ECT/article/view/372920

De la Maya Retamar, G., & López-Pérez, M. (2021). Hábitos lectores y competencia léxica de

futuros profesores de inglés em Educación Primaria. Educação & Formação, 6(1), e3504.

https://doi.org/10.25053/redufor.v6i1.3504

Gutiérrez-Medina, L., Arrué-Quezada, G., & Illanes-Aguilar, L. (2024). Juegos de mesa como

inductor de la motivación para el aprendizaje en adolescentes: Una revisión

sistemática. Revista de estudios y experiencias en educación, 23(52), 195–213.

https://doi.org/10.21703/rexe.v23i52.2429

La EPJA en Ecuador: el último eslabón de la educación. (2023, julio 31). TEXT. https://www.dvv-

international.org.ec/noticias/detail/la-epja-en-ecuador-el-ultimo-eslabon-de-la-educacion

Mármol, G. A. (2023). Aprendizaje y enseñanza de vocabulario en L2: Nuevas perspectivas y

horizontes en la investigación didáctica. ESIC.

Montes-Miranda, A., Moscote-Bustamante, C., & Vergara-Cabarcas, L. (2023). Fortalecimiento de

la escucha de estudiantes de secundaria como habilidad esencial en la comunicación en la

lengua inglesa, dinamización y mediaciones con Blended Learning. Saber Ciencia y

Libertad, 18(1), 299-323. https://doi.org/10.18041/2382-3240/saber.2023v18n1.10109

Ochoa Sierra, L. (2021). Complejidad estructural en textos escolares descriptivo-expositivos:

estudio de corpus. Folios de literatura e idiomas, 54. https://doi.org/10.17227/folios.54-

11977

Ripoll, O., & Pujolà, J.-T. (2024). La gamificación en la educación superior.: Teoría, práctica y

experiencias didácticas. (Primera edición). Octaedro, S.L. https://octaedro.com/wp-

content/uploads/2024/02/9788410054738.pdf

Teaching and learning writing skills through literature. (2021). Canadian Journal of Language and

Literature Studies, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.53103/cjlls.v1i2.11

Vista de Gamificación y aprendizaje basado en juegos. (s/f). Raco. Cat. Recuperado el 21 de abril

de 2025, de https://raco.cat/index.php/ECT/article/view/372920/466561

Valencia Flores, T. V. (2023). La gamificación en el aprendizaje del inglés como lengua extranjera

[Tesis de maestría, UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA ESTATAL DEL CARCHI].

http://repositorio.upec.edu.ec/handle/123456789/2073